a practical guide to turfgrass fungicides, second edition

102, 26252631. Plant Dis.

The goal of the program is to ensure that the use of pesticides poses no unreasonable risks to humans, plants, wildlife, and the environment. Comparative environmental impact assessment of herbicides used on genetically modified and non-genetically modified herbicide-tolerant canola crops using two risk indicators. The SKM helps reduce the number of overall fungicide applications targeting dollar spot by eliminating applications when there isn't a threat of symptom development, and it has become widely utilized by the golf course industry (Smith et al., 2018; Sapkota et al., 2022). Despite golf courses only covering less than a half percent the land area as US agriculture, US golf courses account for 10% of total chlorothalonil use (Van Scoy and Tjeerdema, 2014). A. Available online at: https://hdl.handle.net/1813/43858. The first method utilized, though technically not a measure of pesticide risk, was to calculate the active ingredient (AI) application rate (kg AI ha1) of each treatment. Food Life Sci. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Sci. Figure 1. In addition, Gunstone et al. Pesticide risk and price of each treatment program in the Smith Kerns Model Reduced Risk Study according to the five pesticide risk indices used to quantify pesticide risk: HQ, Hazard Quotient; AI App Rate, Active Ingredient Application Rate; FUEIQ, Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT-Risk Points per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- Risk Points per Application; PRT-High Risks per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- High Risks per Application. (2021) reviewed 400 studies of soil invertebrates and 2,800 tested parameters (the effect of a specific pesticide on a specific soil invertebrate) and found that 70.5% of tested parameters showed negative effects, 1.4% showed positive effects, and 28.1% showed no effect. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Thus, for practical purposes the 25%-SA program is cost neutral.

The authors are aware of no regulations in the US that require golf courses to track pesticide risk, or that set an upper limit on golf course pesticide risk. The incentive for golf course superintendents to adopt reduced risk strategies is nuanced and will differ based on numerous situations.

Professor Latin developed "A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides" to be a thoroughly 'user-friendly' guide based on his belief that if turf managers understand how and why fungicides work (and sometimes fail), they will use these products more effectively and efficiently and communicate disease control issues with greater confidence. Chlorothalonil has long been used in golf course management because of its favorable characteristics as a low-cost, broad-spectrum fungicide that is not susceptible to issues of fungal resistance (Latin, 2021). Appendix: Guide for the Control of Turfgrass Diseases. Golf courses in Wisconsin spend on average $42,000 on pesticides annually (Bekken et al., 2021). Bekken et al. In the State Risk Comparison Study, the 25%-SA treatment reduced risk by 75% compared to the Wisconsin statewide average but only reduced costs by 10%. Sci. Two consecutive field experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of lower risk fungicide programs to suppress dollar spot development. Cultural Aspects of Turfgrass Disease Management. Long term evaluation of reduced chemical pesticide management of golf course putting turf. (2022). Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases, 3rd Edn. MB and PK contributed to the data and statistical analyses.

Plant Dis. In Denmark, all golf courses are required to use an online pesticide application software [Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019]. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. The EIQ value of chlorothalonil is 37, which is considered high. Indeed, recent toxicology studies indicate that chlorothalonil, while not acutely toxic to mammals, is an endocrine distributor in mice, and secondary metabolites of chlorothalonil can be particularly toxic to fish (Zhang et al., 2016; Hao et al., 2019). For the State Average Comparison study conducted at the O. J. Noer the length of the epidemic was 122 days in 2017, 116 days in 2018, 119 days in 2019, and 113 days in 2020.

on golf course fairways and putting greens. J. Environ. When comparing RR-SKM to CP, pesticide risk as quantified by the AI application rate, HQ and FUEIQ were reduced by 76, 72, and 81%, respectively. 11, 7790. Food Syst. Spotlight on Statistics: Sport and Exercise. Total Environ. Disease Management Strategies for Home-Lawn Grasses. All treatments reduced disease compared to the non-treated control in each of the 9 site-years (Table 4). The Warm-Season Grasses: A Plant Pathologist's Point of View. The lowest risk program in both studies, the reduced risk treatment and the 25%-SA treatment, actually had the lowest mean AUDPC dollar spot values across all years and study locations (Tables 4, 5). One method to estimate pesticide risk of pesticide application programs is to sum the annual weight of pesticide active ingredient applied (Kerns and Tredway, 2013). Dollar spot AUDPC values were significantly different across sites (P < 0.001) and years (P < 0.001) (Supplementary Tables S1S4). In summary, our study utilizes four models to estimate of pesticide risk, three of which are meant to represent pesticide risk to the environment generally, and the fourth which is meant to estimate pesticide risk to mammals specifically. The fungicide program submitted by one of the 23 golf courses referenced above that had an HQ score closest to the statewide average was chosen as the baseline for use in this study and is referred to as the 100% state average (SA) risk program. The CP-SKM treatment, despite two fewer fungicide applications, had higher risk because the amount of chlorothalonil applied in this treatment compared to the CP was greater. Rat (Rattus spp) acute oral median lethal dose to control 50% of the control group (LD50) was used to approximate the acute mammalian toxicity and was chosen as the reference dose for the hazard quotient formula. Mills, G., and Rothwell, J. D. (1982). In the PRT, chlorothalonil has a high risk score in the aquatic invertebrates and (human) dermal cancer categories, and a moderate risk score in the avian reproductive and aquatic algae categories. The study was conducted in 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 on approximately the same location each year. - Powered by. The RR-SKM treatment had the same or lower disease compared to the non-treated control in all nine site-years (Table 4). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). This method only considers the exposure level of the pesticide and does not consider the second component of pesticide risk, toxicity. Copyright 2022 Farlex, Inc. | doi: 10.1017/S1742170507001755, Gunstone, T., Cornelisse, T., Klein, K., Dubey, A., and Donley, N. (2021). Applied pesticide shifts towards plants and invertebrates, even in GM crops. Agricult. Pollut. Thus, a reduced risk program was just as effective or more effective in controlling dollar spot and yielding a high-quality turf surface than conventional programs. In addition, the frequent application of pesticides to prevent turfgrass diseases can also present a variety of possible health risks to golf course workers, the golfing public, and the environment. To learn how to manage your cookie settings, please see our Cookie Policy. Pesticide Science and Assessing Pesticide Risks. Taken together, these results indicate that pesticide risk can be significantly reduced on golf courses in the US Midwest without sacrificing dollar spot control. (2005). Chlorothalonil inhibits mouse ovarian development through endocrine disruption. Toxicol. HQ was used because it is a strictly quantitative framework that, as applied in this study, only measures the pesticide risk to mammals. doi: 10.1126/science.abe1148, Smiley, R. W., Dernoeden, P. H., and Clarke, B. Sci. Prices & shipping based on shipping country. The turf quality of the treatment programs across all years and locations were significantly higher than in the control. Feng, M., Schrlau, J. E., Snyder, R., Snyder, G. H., Chen, M., Cisar, J. L., et al. According to all five pesticide risk indicators utilized in this study, the CP-SKM had the highest pesticide risk, the CP had similar but slightly lower risk, and the RR-SKM had far lower risk than the other two programs (Figure 1). Fungus Diseases of Turfgrass, I: Diseases Primarily Occurring on Golf Course Turfs. High risks are defined by the IPM Institute as those with a risk probability <50%. Agron. Science 372, 8184. Int. Med. Turfgrass Soc. 4:881591. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2022.881591.

Reducing the risk of injury associated with pesticide use on golf courses has the potential to benefit golf course superintendents, local environmental health, and the golfing public. Our research indicates that reducing or removing chlorothalonil from a pest management program is the single most effective way to reduce pesticide risk on golf courses. Latin, R (2021). Resistance of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa to iprodione and benomyl. In 2015 turf quality of CP-SKM was lower than CP and RR-SKM at all study locations. Turfgrass quality results were analyzed using the Kruskal Bekken et al. This Second Edition of Management of Turfgrass Diseases has been completely revised and updated to provide the latest information on maintaining a healthy turf and identifying turf diseases. All of the 23 golf courses that submitted pesticide records to calculate an average pesticide risk for Wisconsin used chlorothalonil in their pesticide application programs. A. 783, 146840. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146840, Burpee, L. L (1997). Environ. Dollar spot is the most common and costly disease for golf course superintendents in temperate US climates to control, but the repeated pesticide applications to control dollar spot can increase fungal resistance and risk both human and environmental health. Similar to EIQ and hazard quotient, the PRT estimates pesticide risk based on the two elements of risk: toxicity and exposure. The first fungicide program was titled the Conventional Program (CP) and was based on the fungicide program of a public golf course in southern Wisconsin, USA where pesticides were applied on a preventative calendar schedule. In the remaining 3 years of the study, however, the four treatment groups were statistically distinguishable. Table 1. The random selection occurred by assigning a number to every golf course in the Wisconsin Golf Course Superintendents Association directory and using a random number generator to select 50 numbers. Pesticides are critical tools for golf course managers to maintain healthy and economically profitable golf course playing surfaces. Greenmaster 8, 1415. Turf color as quantified by chlorophyll index (CI) was significantly different between the control and the four treatment programs in 3 of the 4 years of the study.

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Dollar spot severity on individual dates was analyzed by repeated measures analysis using the GLIMMX procedure in SAS. Controlling dollar spot on golf course greens and fairways is generally in the best economic interest of those in the golf business to retain clientele. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. (2021). Environ.

Once a pesticide was applied, the recommended reapplication interval from that pesticide label was observed, and thereafter the next application of fungicide(s) was applied when the model again exceeded 20%.

Van Scoy, A. R., and Tjeerdema, R. S. (2014). Multiple studies have detected high levels of arsenic in soils and groundwater of golf courses from the use of arsenic containing pesticides (Cai et al., 2002; Feng et al., 2005; Pichler et al., 2008). Seasonal development of dollar spot epidemics in six creeping bentgrass cultivars in Maryland. New approaches to an old problem: dollar spot of turfgrass. The identification of the metabolites of chlorothalonil in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and their embryo toxicity and endocrine effects at environmentally relevant levels. The two goals of this study were to: (1) determine if the utilization of the Smith-Kerns Dollar Spot Prediction Model (SKM) in timing fungicide applications contributed to reducing pesticide risk and (2) assess whether reduced risk pesticides were effective in controlling dollar spot on putting green and fairway height turf. Health Part B 7, 267279. (2021) found that golf courses with lower maintenance budgets have lower pesticide risk than golf courses with higher maintenance budgets, suggesting that money is a limiting factor in pesticide use for lower maintenance budget golf courses. doi: 10.1094/P.D.-67-627. doi: 10.2134/jeq2013.01.0017. Total Environ. The study included a control and four programs that were 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% the pesticide risk of the statewide average (SA) as quantified by hazard quotient (HQ).

When calculating treatment costs from the provided distributor price list it was apparent the increased cost of the reduced risk programs was largely due to the increased cost of these products compared to older, more highly toxic compounds.

Critique: Exceptionally well written, organized and presented, "A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides" is an impressively comprehensive, nicely illustrated, and informative textbook that is especially and unreservedly recommended for professional, college and university library Agriculture/Horticulture collections and supplemental studies curriculums. The second fungicide program was titled the Conventional Program Smith-Kerns Model (CP-SKM) and used similar fungicides as the CP but based the application timing on the SKM. It is a valuable reference for information on fungicide movement in turf, fungicide mode of action, strategies for dealing with the threat of fungicide resistance, environmental and maintenance factors that influence fungicide performance, approaches to scheduling fungicide sprays, and practices for integrating chemical and nonchemical options for individual turf diseases, among other topics.This is the first book written in practical terms for turf managers and students that describes how and why fungicides work (and sometimes do not work). The second experiment ran for four growing seasons (2017 through 2020) and is referred to as the State Risk Comparison Study.. We use cookies to improve your website experience. Oliver, D. P., Kookana, R. S., Miller, R. B., and Correll, R. L. (2016). A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides, second edition, https://www.amazon.com/Practical-Guide-Turfgrass-Fungicides-Second/dp/0890546738. Optimal conditions for dollar spot symptom development include temperatures between 15 and 30C and relative humidity in excess of 85% (Smiley et al., 2005).

doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2018.04.004, Sang, H., Hulvey, J., Popko, J. T., Lopes, J., Swaminathan, A., Chang, T., et al. Most VitalSource eBooks are available in a reflowable EPUB format which allows you to resize text to suit you and enables other accessibility features. The CP-SKM treatment had the same or lower disease compared to the CP in all site-years except for University Ridge Hole #18 in 2015 and the OJ Noer in 2014. Plant Pathol. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Given these significant cost differences, golf course superintendents are often not willing or not able to voluntarily pay higher prices for lower risk pesticides. doi: 10.2495/SAFE130171, Kerns, J. P., and Tredway, L. P. (2013).

Control of dollar spot of creeping bentgrass caused by an isolate of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa resistant to benzimidazole and demethylation-inhibitor fungicides. Denmark is a case study of how pesticide risk can be monitored across the golf industry. of Wisconsin-Madison College of Agricultural and Life Sciences Agricultural Research Stations for their support in maintaining the research plots at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research and Education Facility.

Available online at: https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/conventional-reduced-risk-pesticide-program (accessed April 6, 2022). Using the SKM model in the CP-SKM treatment to time fungicide applications led to two fewer fungicides applications compared to the CP, however overall risk was higher than the CP. The State Risk Comparison field experiment was conducted at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility on Focus' creeping bentgrass maintained as a golf course fairway. The CP had 0.64 high risks per application, the CP-SKM had 0.78 high risks per application, while the RR-SKM had zero high risks per application. Dollar spot AUDPC values were significantly different across years (P = 0.0029) (Supplementary Table S6).

State risk comparison study treatment program, date, trade name, active ingredient, rate of application, and pesticide risk as quantified by active ingredient application rate, HQ, hazard quotient; EIQ, Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT, Pesticide Risk Tool for each product applied in the state risk comparison study. The objective of this study was to test the ability of the SKM and reduced risk pesticide products to both reduce golf course pesticide risk and control dollar spot infection on fairways and greens in comparison to conventional pesticide programs. However, the intensity and types of pesticides used on golf courses can be harmful to human and environmental health. The primary fungicides used to control dollar spot in the US include chlorothalonil, fluazinam, and multiple fungicides from the demethylation inhibitor (DMI) and the succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI) classes of fungicides (Latin, 2021). However, the three other methods used to estimate risk, the AI App Rate method, FUEIQ, and PRT (Risk Points per Application, High Risks per Application) estimated that the 50%-SA treatment had the highest risk of the four treatments (Figure 2). The risk points per application metric captures both high, moderate, and low risk by converting the different numerical scales across 13 categories to a common 0 Bekken et al. Supplementary Table S7 indicates dollar spot severity at each rating date across the 4 years of the study.

(2021) also found product selection to be an important determinant of pesticide risk on golf courses in the northern US. (2011). Kniss (2017) found that herbicide use in US agriculture increased from 1990 to 2015 but that acute and chronic mammalian risk was mostly either declining or stable. Data collection was the same for both studies. Schulz et al.

Alternative measure of pesticide use. Sci. Two pesticide risk indicators from the PRT were utilized in this study: (1) high risks per application, and (2) risk points per application. doi: 10.1094/9780890546741, Lee, H., Bremer, D., Su, K., and Keeley, S. (2011). Carcinogenic and genotoxic potential of turf pesticides commonly used on golf courses. Greitens, T. J., and Day, E. (2006). Despite such evidence, Arcury-Quandt et al. The two goals of this study were to: (1) determine the average fungicide risk on a Wisconsin golf course and (2) assess whether fungicide programs of decreasing risk compared to the statewide average would provide adequate dollar spot suppression. The authors were involved in the development of the SKM and found that a model probability of 20% acted as an acceptable threshold to time preventative fungicide applications for dollar spot control (Smith et al., 2018). While such high levels of risk reduction may not be possible on all golf courses given the constraints of maintenance budgets and the development of fungal resistance, significant reductions in golf course pesticide risk to control dollar spot are achievable simply by making changes in product selection. (2021) (Equation 1). (2008). US EPA (2021). Turfgrass quality ratings included combinations of disease, color, density, and uniformity and were always conducted by the same person to avoid interpersonal variation. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-12-17-2025-RE, Rossi, F. S., and Grant, J. (2007). Valuable tips on irrigation, fertilization, and grass culture as well as 72 full-color photographs and more than 100 figures ensure this book will be dog-eared from use. 122, 761773. While the RR-SKM program had significantly lower pesticide risk than the other two pesticide application programs in the study, the estimated cost of the program was $5,049 USD per hectare. Mowing height during each year at both the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility and University Ridge Golf course for the Smith-Kerns Model (SKM) reduced risk study and the state risk comparison study.

134, 173182. Plant Sci. This statewide average was then used to test pesticide programs at 100, 75, 50, and 25% of the average risk for their efficacy in controlling dollar spot over a 4-year period. Models developed by Mills and Rothwell (1982); Hall (1984); Ryan et al. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, United States, University of Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. There are ~25 million golfers in the United States who play on 16,752 golf courses (Royal Ancient (R&A), 2019; National Golf Federation (NGF), 2021). Written by a leading international lecturer on turf grasses, the book covers cultural, genetic, biological, and chemical approaches to turf management and provides practical solutions to everyday problems. J. Environ. Metcalfe et al. Bekken et al. The fourth method used was the Pesticide Risk Tool (PRT). Routledge & CRC Press eBooks are available through VitalSource. Received: 22 February 2022; Accepted: 20 April 2022; Published: 13 May 2022. Each experiment was conducted on Penncross creeping bentgrass maintained as either a golf course fairway or golf course putting green (Table 1). Dollar spot (Clarireedia spp.) U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Qual. Bekken et al. Trends in pesticide risk over time on US golf courses are unknown due to a lack of nationwide data, but multiple analyses have been conducted in US agriculture.

Only in 2018 was there a treatment difference in dollar spot AUDPC, during which the 100%-SA treatment actually had more dollar spot relative to the 75%-SA, 50%-SA, and 25%-SA treatments. Golf Course Industry (2015). The SKM Reduced Risk field experiment was conducted at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research and Education Facility on two separate plots (14th and 18th holes) on the adjacent University Ridge Golf Course in Verona, Wisconsin, USA. System requirements for Bookshelf for PC, Mac, IOS and Android etc. SKM reduced risk study treatment program, date, trade name, active ingredient, rate of application, and pesticide risk as quantified by active ingredient application rate, HQ, hazard quotient; EIQ, Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT, Pesticide Risk Tool for each product applied in the study. Detection of demethylation inhibitor (DMI) resistance in Sclerotinia homoeocarpa populations. doi: 10.1094/PD-79-0491. (2011) found that most US golf course superintendents interviewed did not think that pesticides present a personal health risk. In 2016 the length of the epidemic was 133 days at University Ridge and 154 days at O. J. Noer. 8 ,14865. doi: 10.1038/ncomms14865, Knopper, L. D., and Lean, D. R. S. (2010). Available online at: https://pesticiderisk.org (accessed April 6, 2022).

Selected golf courses were contacted via email and asked to share their pesticide application records over a 2-year period within a three-year window, from 2014 through 2016. In 2014 and 2015, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measurements were collected on a 14-day interval to estimate turfgrass color and was measured using a FieldScout TCM 500 NDVI Turf Color Meter (Spectrum Technologies Inc., Plainfield, Illinois). In the 25% treatment in the State Risk Comparison Study and the RR-SKM treatment in the SKM Reduced Risk study, the fungicides in the program are primarily lower risk pesticides such as boscalid, fluxapyroxad, and penthiopyrad from the SDHI fungicide class. It addresses all the factors that contribute to the effective and efficient use of fungicides specifically for controlling diseases on turf.

Detweiler, A., Vargas, J., and Danneberger, T. (1983). Ryan, C. P., Dernoeden, P. H., and Grybauskas, A. P. (2012).

However, EIQ and PRT assign chlorothalonil a much higher risk value, which is why the 50%-SA treatment was the highest risk treatment, as quantified by PRT and EIQ, in the State Risk Comparison Study. 67, 627630. Beginning in 2016, chlorophyll index was used to estimate turfgrass color and was assessed using a FieldScout CM 1000 Chlorophyll Meter (Spectrum Technologies Inc., Plainfield, Illinois). IPM Institute of North America (2021). This was more than two times greater than the cost of the CP-SKM program ($2,446 USD per hectare) and 1.6 times the cost of CP program ($3,172 USD per hectare).

Introduction to Turfgrass Diseases. Table 2. Assessment of arsenic mobility in the soils of some golf courses in South Florida. Index.2-LEVEL. Figure 2. Bennett). doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.47.3.422, Salgado-Salazar, C., Beirn, L. A., Ismaiel, A., Boehm, M. J., Carbone, I., Putman, A. I., et al.

Ecologically, Haith and Rossi (2003) found that runoff of chlorothalonil, iprodione, and pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) from fairways may routinely affect aquatic health in surrounding water bodies. Twenty-three golf courses responded to the request for pesticide records and provided a broad representation of golf courses in the state, both geographically and economically. doi: 10.1094/9780890546154, Smith, D. L., Kerns, J. P., Walker, N. R., Payne, A. F., Horvath, B., Inguagiato, J. C., et al. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/A+Practical+Guide+to+Turfgrass+Fungicides%2c+second+edition.-a0672005871. J. 64:167174. Left uncontrolled, tan-colored foci 25 cm in diameter can interrupt the playability and the aesthetics of the turfgrass playing surfaces (Smiley et al., 2005). By continuing to use the website, you consent to our use of cookies. (2018). Bacterial, Mycoplasmal, Nematode Diseases of Turfgrasses, and the Black Layer. It's almost like having your own private turfgrass consultant sitting right on your bookshelf. Individual plot area measured 1.8 by 3.0 m and the four treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. These results make clear, however, that product selection plays a larger role in risk reduction than the overall number of fungicide applications because of the large differences in risk between products. The HQ model was used to defined risk levels of the State Risk Comparison study, and thus the 50%-SA treatment could include chlorothalonil.

PLoSONE 13, e0194216. There is some scientific evidence that golf course superintendents have worse health outcomes which may be linked to on-the-job pesticide exposure (Kross et al., 1996; Knopper and Lean, 2010). doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.026, Keywords: turfgrass, hazard quotient (HQ), Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ), ecological risk assessment (ERA), Pesticide Risk Tool, fungi, plant disease, fungicide, Citation: Bekken MAH, Hockemeyer KR, Soldat DJ and Koch PL (2022) Reducing Pesticide Risk Associated With Dollar Spot Management on Golf Course Turfgrass.

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