principles of language learning and teaching sixth edition

Anderson, N. (1991). An examination of the linguistic context appears to explain the variation.

I borrow from their title here to offer further tips for intercultural teaching. Gass, S. (2013). A friend persuades you to do something extraordinary because he or she has mustered communicative strategies for the occasion.

Local errors do not inhibit communication, usually because there is only a minor slip, allowing the hearer/reader to make an accurate guess of the intended meaning. Second language task complexity: Researching the cognition hypothesis of language learning and performance.

Language acquisition: The age factor (2nded.). What difficulties, if any, were encountered? Fries, C. (1952). So, in #7, how would you teach regular and irregular verbs? Adults learning a second language might do well to attend consciously to truth value and to be less aware of surface structure as they communicate. It has also been observed that the manner in which an idea or assertion is stated affects the way we conceptualize the idea (Boroditsky, 2011). 2. 126178). Freire vigorously objected to traditional banking concepts of education in which teachers think of their task as one of filling students by making deposits of information which [they] consider to constitute true knowledge deposits which are detached from reality (1970, p. 62).

Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. In adolescence, physical, emotional, and cognitive changes bring on mounting defensive inhibitions 148 CHAPTER 6 Affective Factors designed to protect a fragile ego from threats to the organization of values and beliefs on which appraisals of self-esteem have been founded. Launching a now decades-long investigation of writing conventions across different languages and cultures, Kaplan prodded others (Connor & Kaplan, 1987; Connor, 1996, 2002; Li, 1996; Connor, Nagelhout, & Rozycki, 2008) to scrutinize crosscultural aspects of writing, and in particular the difficulties learners may experience in acquiring conventions of writing in a second language.

L1 interference models and the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), for example, were due for a period of quiescence (Wardhaugh, 1970, p. 126) as long ago as 1970, and while no one would diminish the effect of any prior experience and knowledge, both positive and negative, L1-L2 contrasts remain just one among many possible factors in SLA. What kinds of emitted responses have you experienced in learning or teaching a language? Raising teachers awareness of corpora. The second hypothesis proposed that an FS style, by virtue of its association with empathy, social outreach, and perception of other people, yields successful acquisition of the communicative aspects of a second language. The dangers of dichotomy: A reply to Hulstijn. Using a new word or phrase in what you thought was the appropriate contextbut it turned out that you overgeneralized? . Updated activities and discussion questions for practicing instrctuctors and teachers in training. In B. Robinett & J. Schachter (Eds. 3556). (1979).

. (2008). 4. i 1 1. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. . In order to begin to ask further questions and to find answers to some of those questions, lets first address a fundamental concern in problem-posing: defining the focus of our inquiry. North American cultural conventions are typified by more informal styles than those of some other cultures. Its quickness precludes the deliberate, analytic reflection that is the hallmark of the thinking mind (1995, p. 291). In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds. Skinners Verbal Behavior (1957) described language as a system of verbal operants, and his understanding of the role of conditioning led to a whole new era in educational practices around the middle of the twentieth century. Language, psychology, and culture: Essays by Wallace E. Lambert. Culture is relatively stable, and it has the potential to change across time.

Differential effects of prompts and recasts in form-focused instruction.

Jones, P. (2009). Were you aware of producing these forms? At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. One of the most important roles of successful teachers, then, is to facilitate high levels of self-efficacy in their students. 843).

It is how you project yourself to others.

If a baby cries to get a parents attention, and subsequently receives a comforting hug or smile, the emitted response of crying is reinforced through positive consequences. TESOL Quarterly, 43, 255280. Text and corpus analysis. Some useful pedagogical applications emerged in Rod Elliss (1994a, 1997; Han & Ellis, 1998) suggestions for grammar consciousness raising, for example, in which some explicit attention to language form is blended with implicit communicative tasks.

Can late starters attain a native accent in a foreign language? This edition offers more in the way of practical classroom applications. Bakhtin, M. (1990). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education. Then ask each group to report a few of those examples to the rest of the class. Offer some thoughts about what you see as a relationship between behavioral, nativist, and functional approaches to studying first language acquisition and your own experiences in learning or teaching a second language. Modern Language Journal, 84, 251255. In search of fluency: What is it and how can we teach it? .

In strictly behavioral terms, affective and cognitive modes of feedback are reinforcers to speakers responses. Which is better? Fixed time cultures are punctual, acutely aware of passing time, single-focused, goal-fixated, and are more intolerant of interruptions. Covertly erroneous utterances are grammatically well formed at the sentence 252 CHAPTER 9 Interlanguage level but are not interpretable within the context of communication. How do those definitions represent condensed theories? Drawing on Pavlovs findings, John Watson (1913) coined the term behaviorism, contending that human behavior should be studied objectively, rejecting nonmeasurable notions of innateness and instinct. A framework for task-based learning. Yes, they may over time become absorbent sponges, soaking up linguistic data with seemingly little effort. 5. Can you think of some techniques for teaching styles (e.g., asking students to role-play different contexts)? New York: Routledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 361386.

This is not so, as research very clearly shows (Pitchford & Mullen, 2006).

), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning: Volume II.

How would you teach students to grasp differences, say, between formal and informal language in your L2? How is an L2 learner of English, for example, to understand the lines of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who, in his famous I have a dream speech, said, This sweltering summer of the negros discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality? Mestre, J. P.

Kachru, B. So, for example, aptitude constructs such as attention and short-term memory could be relevant for processing input in an L2; phonemic coding ability could contribute to noticing of phonological patterns; and constructs like inductive learning, chunking, and retrieval abilities may allow a learner to identify and integrate grammatical patterns. How do you feel about your pronunciationsatisfied, dissatisfied, resigned, in need of improvement? How useful are such categories of error for the classroom teacher? The natural order for second language learning is listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Harlow, UK: Longman. a focus on the interaction between this self-reflective agent and the fluid and complex . New York: Harper & Row. Youll hear wonderful examples of a creative mind at work. (This would delight Ethans parents.) New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. We can see constructivist perspectives in the work of first and second language acquisition researchers who study conversational discourse, sociocultural factors in learning, and interactionist theories. Travel from the United States to Cairo, Egypt and expect chaotic traffic, street markets and bazaars everywhere, and a 5:00 AM wake-up call from the closest minaret calling for early morning fajr prayer. New York: Oxford University Press. 502503). However, I felt the world was coming to end. Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Morpho-phonological regularity (the degree to which language forms are affected by their phonological environment) 4. Comprehension and Production Look at this typical child-adult exchange: Three-year-old Lisa: Adult: Lisa: Adult: Lisa: My name is Litha. If Myra speaks once today, what will happen tomorrow? (1995). 1.

But as children perceive the importance of the semantic level of language, they attend to a greater extent to a meaningful, deeper level of language. One of the principal weaknesses of extrinsically driven behavior is its addictive nature. And that learning a second language also involves learning a second culture? (Ed.). Also, a nonthreatening environment might become so warm and fuzzy that the facilitative tension needed for learning is absent. The congruency of the two cultures in question Schumann used the above factors to describe hypothetically positive or negative language learning situations. Other forms of identifying styles and strategies, and for raising them to the consciousness of learners, include self-reports through interviews (Macaro, 2001); written diaries and journals (Halbach, 2000; Carson & Longhini, 2002); think-aloud protocols (OMalley & Chamot, 1990; Macaro, 2000) in which questions like, Why did you hesitate and restate that verb form? require a learner response; student portfolios (Chamot, 2005); and inventories that focus on learning the four skills (Cohen, Oxford, & Chi, 2003). I always surprised people in Japan with my native-like Japanese accent and AngloSaxon skin!

A study of flow theory in the foreign language classroom. Sternberg, R. (1988). Each of those billions of neural bytes become associated with other pieces of our memory, and in the process, some of those connections are bound to facilitate and some are destined to debilitate. In non-English-speaking countries (Warden & Lin, 2000; Wu, 2003; Csizr & Drnyei, 2005) intrinsic and extrinsic factors have been identified across a variety of cultural beliefs and attitudes. Consider the following examples. Dogancay-Aktuna, S., & Hardman, J. 3. Motivation, in a constructivist view, is derived as much from our interactions with others as it is from our selfdetermination (Drnyei & Ushioda, 2011). (1997). carla.umn.edu/maxsa/documents/langstratuse-inventory.pdf Comrie, B. Therefore, language classes encourage plenty of imitation. Tell each group that they are a committee that has been invited to an international symposium on SLA, the goal of which is to devise a theory of SLA. Neurolinguistic aspects of language loss as they pertain to second language acquisition.

How would you as a teacher help your students to empathize with new ways of thinking? Age of acquisition and nativelikeness in a second languagelistener perception vs. linguistic scrutiny. Should a teacher help students to notice these errors through overt explanation or more subtly indicate such errors? Armstrong, T. (1994). The language and thought of the child. Instead, we can productively, even if cautiously, pursue the value to language pedagogy of attention to strategic options. (2008). McCarthy, M. (1998).

Types of errors corrected in native-nonnative conversations. In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds. Second Language Research, 17, 368392.

Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 303319. . In E. Hinkel (Ed. What are some of the roadblocks? CHAPTER 2 First Language Acquisition 45 Practice is usually thought of as referring to speaking only. Did your teacher ever point such errors out? Can birds teach us something about human language acquisition? Reflectivity-impulsivity and their influence on reading for inference for adult students of ESL. Alternative approaches to second language acquisition. At best, they appeared to measure ability to perform focused, analytical, context-reduced activities that occupy a student in a traditional language classroom. [eight repetitions of this exchange] No, now listen carefully; say nobody likes me. Oh! For years linguists, psychologists, and educators have been embroiled in the nature-nurture controversy: What are those behaviors that nature provides innately, in some sort of predetermined biological timetable, and what behaviors are internalized by environmental exposure, nurture, or conscious attention? Student and instructor beliefs and attitudes about target language use, first language use, and anxiety: Report of a questionnaire study.

The bottom line? Content-based second language teaching.

), (b) offer any caveats or it depends statements about 312 CHAPTER 2. Two factors accounted for the decline.

There is a danger in too much attention to learners errors. MacWhinney, B. Kachru, B. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 7, 7194. Oller, J. What would you like to ask her about her social interaction, her picking up conversational ability, and no doubt her keen sense of pragmatics in Thai? (2007).

Neurological bimodality and theories of language teaching. ), Language and communication (pp. In R. Lambert & B. Not only is eye contact itself an important category, but within eye-contact cultures, eye gestures (also called oculesics) are in keys to communication.

Describe any feelings of euphoria, uneasiness or stress, culture shock, and a sense of recovery if you felt such. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Chaika, E. (1989).

Each group must name (and explain) three (no more) of the most important tenets or generalizations to be included in the theory.

Language Teaching, 43, 154167. Boroditsky and Gaby (2010) and others have reminded us that linguistic relativity (if not determinism) is alive and well in the twenty-first century and thriving in the languages and communities of the world. Does the activity present a reasonable challenge?

Written Discourse: Intercultural Rhetoric Discourse is, of course, not by any means limited to oral-aural interchange. Semantic complexity (how many meanings are expressed by a particular form) 3. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Some speakers, but not all, were judged to be native speakers.

Language Learning, 24, 205214. How should he determine whether or not Myra had indeed learned to talk? Finally, error analysis can keep us too closely focused on specific languages rather than viewing universal aspects of language. The acquisition of styles and registers poses no simple problem for L2 learners. It seems that we humans vary from one another in an infinite number of possible ways, so many that pinpointing the components of such a theory is frustrating, yet at the same time a challenge worth pursuing. How did you cope with those feelings? New York: Newbury House. Then, learnerhearers, attempting to comprehend an L2, are called upon to correctly interpret potentially garbled messages, and the result can be a tangle of crossed wires. Guiora and his colleagues (1972a, 1972b) found that empathy successfully predicted authenticity of pronunciation of a foreign language. Others were more moderate in recommending re-conceptualizations and new measurement tools before drawing conclusions (Chapelle, 1992; Drnyei & Skehan, 2003). Conceptual impulsivity and inductive reasoning. A closed-minded view of such differences often results in the maintenance of a stereotypean oversimplification and blanket assumption. I was reflective enough to be patient with miscommunications and my inability to communicate well, yet impulsive to the extent that I needed to insist on some action as soon as possible. Competence and Performance Lets go back to Stefanie, the five-year-old monolingual English speaker quoted at the beginning of the chapter.

4. And the book can be used in programs for educating teachers of any foreign language, even though many illustrative examples here are in English since that is the language common to all readers.

The developmental acquisition of basic colour terms.

They may be difficult to consciously retrieve, but could still be an integral part of deep cognitive structure.

Csizr, K., & Drnyei, Z.

Emotional intelligence.

Soon, spurred by the Army Methods success in military language schools, educational institutions began to adopt the new methodology. Such input is largely ignored unless there is some truth or falsity that the child can attend to. 10. Teachers need to consider cultural norms in their assessment of a students presumed passivity in the classroom. 169177). McCafferty, S., & Stam, G. Sternberg, R. (2007).

348 BIBLIOGRAPHY OGrady, W. (2003).

4).

The degree of situational self-esteem a person has may vary depending upon the situation in question. On the other hand, the unmonitored nature of natural conversation is also cause for variation as learners let down their guard, which spurred Rod Ellis (1994b) to hypothesize a storehouse of variable interlanguage rules (p. 269) depending on how automatic and how analyzed the rules are. Many of the chapters have been reorganized (new headings and sections, permutations of topics, etc.) It was not the first or the last of a flurry of thousands of self-help books, magazine articles with self-check quizzes, and weekend seminar retreats, all designed to analyze the real you and to assure that your life is being optimized at your fullest potential. As an alternative, try outlining what you think would be the top three or four or five elements/concepts/issues in creating your theory of SLA, and briefly justify your choices. CATESOL Journal, 19, 3034. New York: Cambridge University Press. Society has its hard-livings bitterness way into the decaded-dragging and full troubled life. Intuitively assess your own level (from high to low) on each factor. 1. Proxemics Cultures vary widely in acceptable distances one can maintain in face-to-face conversation.

TESOL Quarterly, 17, 359382.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Yes, both might make you smile a bit, possibly because of the word pictures they evoke! For example, a learner in the early stages of acquisition will perhaps overtly learn the rule for when and how to use the present perfect tense. Li, X. Likewise, the three major perspectives that have been described herebehavioral, cognitive, and social constructivistallow us to put together a comprehensive understanding of human learning and cognition. Finally, ask them to decide which side of the continuum (the AB side or the DE side) gives them more of an advantage. (1990). 4. The answer to that question lies in a complex amalgam of attention, cognitive style, affective disposition, general interest, and linguistic factors including L1 and L2 transfer and universal grammar constraints. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Do you know anyone who learned a second language after the age of twelve or thirteen, and who developed a perfect command of the language? TESOL Quarterly, 34, 213238. A tight culture is highly integrated, with few differences among members of a community, offering greater validity to generalization. Human performance. Jung, C. (1923).

C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Adult L2 instructioneven in communicative approachestypically includes an emphasis on the structure of the language, and also vocabulary. The first class of words was called pivot, since they could pivot around a number of words in the second, open class. Using the four lists of learning strategies (Tables 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6), describe examples of two or three strategies that you have already used. As a wrap-up discussion, ask the class to comment on overlap and/or a composite picture of the most important features of a theory of SLA. We are left, then, with some support for a neurologically based critical period, but principally for the acquisition of an authentic accent, and not very strongly for the acquisition of communicative fluency and other higher-order processes. And, for a challenge, write about what a teacher can do to help a learner develop autonomy.

A cautious approach to inferring someones competence will allow you to draw some conclusions about overall ability while still leaving the door open for the relevance of many linguistic tidbits that might otherwise be discarded. Their speech and comprehension capacity increases daily as they become the generators of nonstop chattering and incessant conversation. Attribution Theory and Self-Efficacy Underlying the issues and questions about the role of self-esteem in language learning are the foundational concepts of attribution and self-efficacy. Language Learning, 49, 509544. Early childhood bilingualism. Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Harlow, UK: Longman. The teacher could use translation to aid in refinement of production attempts and in comprehension, or explanation when solicited by a student. Watson-Gegeo, K. (2004).

In another sense, however, one can understand why Grammar Translation has been so popular. Day, R., Chenoweth, N., Chun, A., & Luppescu, Stuart. The most difficult or complex?

Kees de Bot (1996) argued that output serves an important role in second language acquisition because it generates highly specific input the cognitive system needs to build up a coherent set of knowledge (p.529). If not, how would Hatchs suggestion play out in an L2 course?

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Language Teaching, 34, 120. (permuted auxiliaries) CHAPTER 9 Interlanguage 253 Levels or domain (Lennon, 1991) of language. Soft cover. One way of looking at such aptitude is the identification of characteristics of successful language learners. (2) Global and local errors are also quite easily discerned without undue deliberation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Cognitive styles in the service of language learning. Smith, F. (1975). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. The wide-ranging research on learner characteristics, styles, and strategies supports the conclusion that certain learners clearly benefit more than others from FFI. An error, a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner. An earlier study on WTC (MacIntyre et al., 1998) found that a number of factors appear to contribute to predisposing some learners to seek, and others to avoid, second language communication. Cognitive viewpoints have multiplied our appreciation of the intricacies of the uniquely human language-thought connection.

Another look at language teaching methodology in a historical context reveals a number of instances of methods that were inspired by observation of, and research on child second language acquisition. I was so depressed.

In E. Hinkel (Ed. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 379400. OMalley, J., Chamot, A., Stewner-Manzanares, G., Kupper, L., & Russo, R. (1985a). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Applied Linguistics, 11, 3045. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Were you taught to develop your strategic competence in learning an L2? How do morpheme-order studies shed light on the relevance of age for acquisition? See also Communicative competence (CC) discourse, 208, 209 explanation of, 34 grammatical, 208, 209 heterogeneous, 37 illocutionary, 209, 211 interactional, 216217 intercultural, teaching, 196199 intrinsic motivation and, 160 linguistic vs. communicative, 205206 organizational, 209 performance vs., 3436, 70 production vs. comprehension, 38 sociolinguistic, 208, 209 strategic, 208209, 210 Competition Model, 259 Complimenting conventions, 227 Compound bilinguals, 66 Comprehension, 3738, 70 Computer analyses of language, 229231 Concept learning, 93 Conceptual universe, framing our, 180183 Conditioned response, 80 Connectionism, 2930 Consciousness, 270, 292 grammar consciousness raising, 271, 294 Constructivism cognitive version of, 12 culture and, 175176 motivation and, 159, 160n, 166 second language acquisition and, 1215 social, 1213, 8992, 92n, 297 themes in, 14n Consultative style, 222 Context-embedded communication, 99, 207 Context of learning, errors and, 260261 Context-reduced communication, 99, 207 Contextual variability, 247248 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), 291 claims made of, 255256 explanation of, 254256 393 strong and weak versions of, 256258 Contrastive rhetoric, 224 Controlled processing, 292, 293n Conversation analysis of, 4647, 219221 attention getting in, 219220 cultural diversity and, 182 topic nomination in, 220 Cooperation principles, 227 Cooperative dialogue, 306307 Coordinate bilinguals, 66 Corpus analysis (corpus linguistics), 229231 Corrective feedback, 272 Counseling-learning model of education, 105 Covert errors, 251252 CPH.

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