Lowering the material intensity of manufacturing and use (Thompson et al. 2019; Lander et al. This can be attributed to publications typically using mass-based indicators to quantify the amount of materials recovered through PV recycling (Granata et al. Finally, regulations for bulk PV materials can drive increased recycling and impact siting decisions for recycling infrastructure. Policies could approach standardized designs as a mandate, or could create incentives for manufacturers to collaborate and share data in protected ways, even with consumers (e.g., through blockchain) (Melin 2021).
Mater. Similarly, projected LIB growth by 2025 is expected to drive the demand for nickel to levels greater than current supply, even including projected supply increases (Campagnol et al. At present, hydrometallurgy is typically used to recover LIBs after pretreatment.
Such approaches should then be able to inform investors, regulators and analysts on decisions on sizing, location and choice of technology for PV recycling facilities.
Both graphs represent 332 original research publications, all of which passed the 4 screens. Discharge: Removing electrical charge from each LIB is critical for worker and facility electrical safety. A review of the 29 LCA studies shows that only 3 accounted for data uncertainty. 2014), Directing research and development toward areas which generate the greatest improvements in CE strategies (Wender et al. A CE is proposed as a strategy to advance other societal goals, especially improvement to environmental quality; long-term security, reliability, and resilience of industrial supply chains; and improved standards of living. (A) Hydrometallurgical process. 2020). In the preheating zone, the heating temperature should be lower than 300C to ensure complete evaporation of the electrolyte without explosion.
Despite the economic and environmental promise, there are technical and analytical challenges to non-recycling CE strategies for LIB. Many benefits are claimed by connecting the CE to different industries, fields of study, and global challenges.
Lead-free and low-temperature soldering alternatives may have lower thermal fatigue resistance than conventional lead-based solders (Spinella and Bosco 2021), which could impact module durability and performance.
Recovery of valuable metals from waste cathode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries using mild phosphoric acid.
J. For example, it has been found that new standards may be required to more accurately test the performance of lead-free solders (Spinella and Bosco 2021). 2021, Cui et al. R strategy description with examples from a manufacturers and consumers (for R0R2) perspective (adapted from Potting et al. 2018; Rajagopalan et al. 2019, Cui et al.
2021), reducing the quantity of materials that are scarce (Gourley, Or, and Chen 2020) or have a negative social impact associated with extraction (Banza Lubaba Nkulu et al. Yes. 2018). These challenges are related in a simple but powerful formulation known as the IPAT equation: environmental impact (I)= population (P) affluence (A) technology (T) (Ehrlich and Holdren 1971). Non-recycling CE strategies: We identified key knowledge gaps for (1) the social drivers that influence the effectiveness of a CE for PV and (2) the social impacts that are realized after a CE for PV is implemented. Leaching lithium from the anode electrode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries by hydrochloric acid (HCl). Waste Manag. Figure 20. 2021). (n= 332; note that for the pie charts, a given publication may report multiple chemistries. For second life applications, we find a lack of clarity on how electrical, building, and fire regulations will apply to second life LIBs in grid and non-grid applications (Curtis et al. After EOL LIBs are collected, they can be evaluated for their potential for refurbishing, repurposing, and remanufacturing. This is not to say that we believe research on recycling should stop; rather, that attention to other CE strategies should increase, which is beginning to happen and we believe should accelerate as the amount of decommissioned PV modules and LIBs increases.
These terms and their synonyms that were used in the literature search are detailed in SI sections S3.1.
With regard to the prevalence by PV technology for certain CE strategies, including recycling, it is interesting to note the higher-than-market-share prevalence of CdTe publications. doi: 10.1007/s10967-014-3556-5, Nan, J., Han, D., and Zuo, X. 2019; Meshram, Pandey, and Mankhand 2014; Recupyl 2013; Samarukha 2020; Velzquez et al. Purify/Extract Metal: In the purification (also called metal extraction) step, the metal is purified through either hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical or direct recycling, which have been explained in preceding sections.
Global society and our planet face many challenges, including climate change, air pollution, finite resources to support growing population and affluence, and equity. Accordingly, anything that increases deployment of renewable energy technologies (e.g., PV), like LIBs, would support a more circular economy. 2017)). The terms used in the search query represented CE, CE strategies (R0R9, except the OSTI search which excluded R8), and either LIBs or PV, as well as synonyms that are commonly found in the literature for each. 2020; Nirmale, Kale, and Varma 2017; Zhao et al. 2019), Sum= Sumitomo-Sony (Cardarelli and Dube 2007; Samarukha 2020; Velzquez et al.
Al and Li are typically oxidized, separated as slag, and subsequently recovered through additional processing (e.g., though chlorination roasting (Dang et al. (2016) reported a technology to directly recycle LiFePO4 from soft-pack batteries.
Approaches such as agent-based modeling could be used to study market responses to policy initiatives in specific juridictions, and how juridictions can adopt, modify, and implement the policies for markets in their control.
The role of product design and business models on the effectiveness of CE (Franco 2019), The impact of social norms on the effectiveness of community level CE programs (Tong et al.
Research has demonstrated that materials recovered from PV modules can be reused in: Building materials (Cerchier et al. Table 1. This premature replacement is referred to in this industry as repowering. Further examples of refuse strategy performance-related trade-offs that we found in the literature include: Fluorine-free backsheets could have lower durability than fluorinated backsheets (DuPont 2020). It is fair to say that CE is not yet mature in the PV and LIB industries. Biotechnol. 2019).
Automated disassembly line aims to make battery recycling safer, faster, designing new materials for photovoltaics: Opportunities for lowering cost and increasing performance through advanced material innovations, international energy agency, Oak Ridge National Laboratory and National Renewable Energy Laboratory, The impact of policies and business models on income equity in rooftop solar adoption, PV evolution in the light of circular economy, PV in the circular economy, a dynamic framework analyzing technology evolution and reliability impacts, Platform for accelerating the circular economy, Photovoltaic recycling with the help of water and light-it does not get greener, IEEE 7th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (WCPEC)(A Joint Conference of 45th IEEE PVSC, 28th PVSEC & 34th EU PVSEC), A new and intelligent de-metalization step of broken silicon cells and silicon cell production waste in the recycling procedure of crystalline si modules, Upcycling of spent lithium cobalt oxide cathodes from discarded lithium-ion batteries as solid lubricant additive, Research gaps in environmental life cycle assessments of lithium ion batteries for grid-scale stationary energy storage systems: End-of-life options and other issues, Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems, The role of batteries in meeting the PV terawatt challenge, Blockchain for energy sharing and trading in distributed prosumer communities, Degradation of plated silicon solar module due to copper diffusion: The role of capping layer formation and contact adhesion, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Integration of MCDA tools in valuation of comparative life cycle assessment.
Demand for these bulk materials is not expected to cause market disruption or supply shortages (Calvo and Valero 2021; DOE 2021). doi: 10.1016/S0304-386X(02)00167-6, Lee, S. K., and Lee, S. H. J. N. (2000). Physical processes usually include pretreatment and direct recovery of electrode materials. 2005) used multi-criteria decision analysis to identify the most optimal and sustainable CE strategy, also incorporating the sensitivity of the stakeholders to the three dimensions of sustainability. Bioleaching of metals from spent lithium ion secondary batteries using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. JOM 10, 36733681.
To date, repair has been found to be capable of addressing defects in a modules bypass diodes, encapsulant, junction box, backsheet, glass, and connectors (Beaucarne et al.
In fact, identifying CE strategies that align with market economics and other important goals is critical to the successful uptake of CE. 2013; Wills and Napier-Munn 2006). For example, some research is focused on recovering and reusing solar-grade silicon that is lost from cutting the top and bottom of the silicon ingot, (Bronsveld et al. 2020). The largest fraction of demand is for NMC, driven by the transportation market, with projected 2040 demand being more than double the second highest chemistry, LFP. doi: 10.1016/j.jtice.2019.04.017, Song, J. Y., Wang, Y., and Wan, C. C. (1999). Open circuit voltage characterization of lithium-ion batteries. 2020; Ravikumar et al. 2021) infrared thermographic imaging,(Tsanakas, Ha, and Buerhop 2016; Tsanakas et al. 2015).
As another example, for cadmium-telluride (CdTe) thin film PV modules (which has the second-greatest global market share), the European Commissions Joint Research Centre has found that projected global PV demand for tellurium will reach or exceed 2018 global supply by 2030 and beyond (Figure 3). All stages in the life cycle of LIB and PV are expected to have trade-offs between positive and negative impacts to ecological services.
Review of gel-type polymer electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries. Our process involved multiple database searches and four screening phases (Figure 7).
J. Clean.
This strategy, while demonstrated as possible in the laboratory (Frisson et al. A significant share of the CE publications in our analysis focus on the nano scale (Figure 20 (c), Figure S30(C)).
Although this is still relevant to the global circular economy, this type of recycling is not as relevant to the CE of each technology considered in this review. Yet, as will be shown in this review, there has been a growing interest in the research community to investigate potential circular economy strategies for these two technologies. What is the definition of a circular economy? 2017) will help prevent the potential release of lead to the environment at end of life and could potentially prevent modules from being classified as hazardous waste, with its accompanying increase in cost of recycling and disposal.
Based on our assessment of the state of current literature and scientific understanding, we recommend research move beyond its prior emphasis on recycling technology development to more comprehensively investigate other CE strategies, more holistically consider economic, environmental and policy aspects of CE strategies, increase leveraging of digital information systems that can support acceleration towards a CE, and to continue to study CE-related aspects of LIB and PV markets.
(2018) compared three direct physical recovery processes for graphite anode materials from spent LIBs. To quantify and minimize potential errors in the classification, we performed verification checks, in which each reviewer classified a random sample of literature from the others technology.
Tech. Similarly, extant research heavily emphasizes mass-based indicators, which is a traditional way to quantify recycling efficiency (Dodbiba et al.
(2002). Technologies that can inform CE decisions: These include AI, ML, and blockchain. While important in their own right, effort indicators can be valuable inputs to make TEAs more accurate and impactful.
The cells can then also be disassembled (e.g., carrier plates, temperature sensing plates). 2021; Fu et al.
See Figure 11 for explanation of Exclusive and Multiple).
(C) Direct physical recycling process. For example, decreasing silver content in PV modules (VDMA 2020) will lower the recycling revenues from resale of recovered materials and further increase the challenge of making PV recycling profitable. (2016) reported the leaching performance using citric acid. 2016).
Given that our review captured over 3,000 publications, it was beyond our ability to include these topics. Another underrepresented strategy in the extant PV CE literature is the reduce strategy. With the development of battery technology, the content of Co in electrode materials is decreasing, while the use of Ni and manganese is increasing. Makes research and development recommendations based on results and synthesis of the review. In addition, several other materials in PV modules are considered critical by different governments, such as aluminum and tin (Department of the Interior: Geological Survey 2022), and silicon metal (European Commission 2020). The CE strategy must be applied to or start with a product or process that is specific to the LIB or PV industry. 2014), which has methodological features that can better evaluate low-technology readiness level technologies. For an energy-generating technology like PV, the ideal scenario to increase climate benefits would be powering with PV throughout the PV supply chain (Ravikumar et al. Not only does the higher mass fraction make them easier recycling targets, but focusing on them enables compliance with mass fraction-based recycling regulations, where they exist (Tsanakas et al. Bahaloo-Horeh and Mousavi (2017) reported the similar results of studies related to Aspergillus Niger and reported the effects of electrolytes in the slurry on biology. 2013; Dunn et al. Variance in manufacturing (Kenney et al. 2017; Rallo et al.
Nonferrous Metals. This study has looked at 44 commercial recyclers and assessed their recycling and reclamation processes. For example, the literature focuses most heavily on the EOL phases given that is where recycling is typically implemented (Figure 13 (b)).
2017; Renewance 2021). 2021, 2022).
One way to mitigate material supply challenges is to recover materials from products at the end of their lifetime through recycling. Assessing sustainability impacts of CE strategies requires a broader systems perspective as CE strategies can generate economic or environmental benefit in one life cycle phase while introducing burdens in another. Hydrometallurgy 68, 510.
With the exception of pyrometallurgical processing for certain recyclers (like Umicore), LIB recycling requires a common first step of mechanical preprocessing (e.g., sieving and crushing). 2021a). From an environmental (LCA) perspective, our literature review has revealed a lack of data describing material constituents for LIB chemistries, battery designs, and manufacturing conditions, which can be used to assess the environmental impact of the CE for LIBs. (2016).
Table 1.
2020). p. 496. doi: 10.1038/35035045, Li, J., Shi, P., Wang, Z., Chen, Y., and Chang, C. C. (2009).
2021). Chem.
There are several areas where policies have been identified as helpful to addressing barriers to a CE for LIB, including lack of standardized designs, which inhibits efficient automation of decommissioning and disassembly (Li et al.
During collection, PV components that havent reached EOL can be decommissioned prematurely to be replaced with newer PV components to improve electricity generation (e.g., modules with higher efficiency), avoid maintenance issues (e.g., hard to find and highly customized parts), and prevent electricity losses due to frequent faults in older components (Jean, Woodhouse, and Bulovi 2019; Longi Solar 2018). doi: 10.1039/C5GC02650D, Chen, X., Fan, B., Xu, L., Zhou, T., and Kong, J.
As an example of possible issues that emerge from scaling, lab-scale demonstrations may show that automation for LIB disassembly is safer, prevents material losses, and is economically efficient (Li et al.
Digital platforms and information systems can be leveraged to implement CE strategies across the different life cycle phases of a PV system (Figure 16).
Number of publications of the universe and those that passed each screen for LIBs and PV. Non-recycling CE pathways are generally preferred in the CE hierarchy because they usually retain a greater proportion of the value of the original products (Richa, Babbitt, and Gaustad 2017).
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