9-31A and 9-31B) to keep the chemical from escaping prematurely. Other combinations of fungicides including prochloraz Mn+tolclofos-methyl (Carnegie et al., 1998), chlorothalonil+propamocarb, and cymoxanil+mancozeb (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) showed variable efficacy. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. and EDBCs (maneb, mancozeb, zineb, nabam, metiram, etc.). Increases in enzyme activities and phenol and lignin contents associated with induced resistance mechanism were also observed in chitosan and -aminobutyric treated potatoes (Sun et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009b; Olivieri et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010). Table 47.1 lists the 20 most common turfgrass disease problems in terms of problem intensity. Insecticides such as acephate, bifenthin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, and spinosad are effective treatment for surface-feeding insect pests. Locally absorbed penetrant-type fungicides are represented by three fungicides, which control nine diseases, and the three systemic fungicides control two diseases, respectively. Penetrant fungicides are absorbed by the plant to provide their control. Combinations of fludioxonil+cyprodinil have also been reported to be effective as postharvest treatment while fludioxonil alone showed variable efficacy (Daami-Remadi et al., 2006b, 2010). Implementation of integrated turfgrass management practices and advances in alternative pest management strategies are providing new information on how best to manage turf facilities with minimal use of pesticides and reduced environmental hazard associated with their application. Significant matrix effects observed for most of the pesticides tested were eliminated by using matrix-matched standards. The fungicide is xylem-mobile and can be used as drench, soil incorporation, dip or foliar spray. Copyright 2022 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Among these salts, potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite provided 100% inhibition of dry rot under laboratory conditions (Kolaei et al., 2012). However, turfgrass is established and maintained usually with a single or few cultivars and in many cases in less than optimal environments. Odorless to faint aromatic odor. The signs of toxicity include hypokinesia, lethargy, hunched posture, body tremors, clonic convulsions, nasal hemorrhages, piloerection, staggering gait, and ataxia. Richard P. Pohanish, in Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals (Second Edition), 2015, Carbamic acid, [3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-, propyl ester, monohydrochloride; N-(-Dimethylaminopropyl)carbamic acid propyl ester, monohydrochloride; Propyl [3-(dimethylamino)propyl]carbamate monohydrochloride, BANOL; PREVEX; PREVICUR N; SH-66752; TATTOO. Exposure to ETU at the critical stages of pregnancy produced malformations in rats, predominantly those of the CNS. Control of emerged grass seedlings is usually achieved by the application of arsenates, such as MSMA, but these postemergence herbicides can injure turfgrass, particularly when applied during hot weather. 9-31C) or are injected into the soil through chisels but, usually, without being covered with plastic afterward (Fig. In addition, new growth, which is not covered, is susceptible to fungal attack. The developmental toxicity included malformations and embryo-fetotoxic effects at maternally toxic dose levels with EBDCs in rats (Ollinger et al., 2001). They include gangrene, silver scurf, dry rot, skin spot and stem canker (Table6.2). For subsurface insect pest control, insecticides such as acephate, chlorpyrifos, isazophos, and trichlorfon have provided good results. ), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), sage (Salvia fruticosa Mill. The control of grass weeds is primarily accomplished by the application of preemergence herbicides (e.g., benzamide, ethofumesate, pendimethalin, prodiamine, oxadiazon, bensulide, dithiopyr, and simazine). It can seriously reduce yield by killing the foliage early; during periods of heavy rain the spores of the fungus can be washed into the soil and onto the tubers, so causing them to rot in the ground or during storage. From: Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005, M. Kilian, U. Steiner, in Encyclopedia of Rose Science, 2003. Gupta, in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, 2011. It has an active ingredient, 1,3-dichloropropene, which is highly volatile and must be applied by authorized operators. 
Disturbances in cell wall synthesis occur, associated with an outflow of cytoplasm. Strains resistant to TBZ are however generally also resistant to thiophanate-methyl (Kawchuk et al., 1994; Holley and Kawchuk, 1996). Currently, there is a soil fumigant (Curfew) that is registered for use on golf courses in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Texas. ), dictamnus (Origanum dictamnus L.), and marjoram (Origanum majorana L.) essential oils inhibited completely the growth of F. coeruleum (Daferera et al., 2003) whereas lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Carbamates are incompatible with reducing agents, strong acids, oxidizing acids, peroxides, and bases. Insecticides for Turfgrass Insect Pests. and Phytophthora spp. Forklift delivery from each warehouse location to surrounding areas, UPS, Fed-Ex and/or DHL depending on location. In general, carbamic acid derivatives, except nabam, have low or moderate acute toxicity via the oral, dermal and respiratory routes. High concentrations were necessary to decrease significantly the severity of dry rot (Olsen et al., 2003; Tweddell et al., 2003). Turf can become infested with annual and perennial grasses (not the planted cultivar) and broadleaf plants that are controlled by the use of various herbicides. Registered for use in EU countries[115]. As mentioned previously, proper turfgrass management can minimize some of these problems in terms of the intensity and frequency of the damage. Certain fungicides are applied to the soil as dusts, drenches, or granules to control damping-off, seedling blights, crown and root rots, and other diseases. Low limits of detection (0.010.94ng/mL) and quantification (0.033.12ng/mL) were readily achieved for all tested pesticides. A common programme is to use, Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (1998), Penetrant fungicides are absorbed by the plant to provide their control. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. Different fungicides tested for control of potato dry rot. Can be applied following germination or to established turf. TBZ+imazalil showed variable efficacy (Carnegie et al., 1998). In some cases, foliar diseases (e.g., downy mildews and rusts) can be controlled by incorporating the fungicide (e.g., metalaxyl, triadimenol) into the fertilizer and applying them together before planting. Emulsifiable concentrates of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Anglique Bojanowski, Russell J. Tweddell, in Postharvest Biology and Technology, 2013. Home Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride). H.J.S. Carvone vapors prevented dry rot caused by F. sulphureum but not by F. solani (Gorris et al., 1994; Hartmans et al., 1995). Contact/protectant fungicides are the next most diverse group (four fungicides) and control 15 separate fungal diseases. Twenty years later other chemicals were introduced to control potato tuber diseases in particular the benzimidazole fungicide thiabendazole (TBZ) (Leach and Nielsen, 1975). May form explosive materials with phosphorus pentachloride. and some efficacy to reduce dry rot disease in vivo. The powerful features of LC/MS, such as high efficient separation, identification, and quantification of polar analytes, make this technique very attractive to the field of pesticide residue analysis. It induces sensitization in a MagnussonKligman maximization test. Fenoxaprop (Acclaim) has been determined to be an effective replacement for the arsenates. The main features of toxicity include anorexia, diarrhea, and flatulence followed by neurological effects, ataxia, muscular contractions and prostration. Control of nuisance aquatic weeds in lakes and ponds associated with parks and golf courses are also subjected to herbicide treatment. The loss of efficacy of TBZ, mainly because of the increase in resistant Fusarium isolates, has led to the exploration of alternative chemicals for postharvest control of potato dry rot (Table 3). Chlorine and chlorine dioxide extensively used as disinfectants showed a limited efficacy to reduce dry rot. Volatile chemicals (fumigants) are often used to fumigate the soil before planting for reducing the inoculum of nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. Essential oils and other plant extracts are promising alternatives to synthetic chemical fungicides for control of potato dry rot but further investigation is needed. These are recorded by the Meteorological Office, and information can be obtained by farmers by telephone or through the Internet. Reject and waste potatoes should be deeply buried and volunteers should be killed off in other crops before they become a source of infection. 9-31D). Application of TBZ+futriafol (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) and TBZ+2-aminobutane (Carnegie et al., 1990) was reported effective against dry rot (Table 3). Leakage out of the mycelium can be inhibited by the addition of sterols. Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009) developed a HPLC/MS/MS method for the analysis of pesticides in fruit juices. Some of the systemic fungicides may provide season-long control from a single preplant application. Ferbam increased the incidence of soft tissue and skeletal abnormalities in rats but not in mice. A substantial number of diseases, pests, and weeds damage turfgrass and impair its ability to function properly in the recreational activity that it was intended to provide. The use of salts in postharvest treatments could eventually constitute an interesting alternative to synthetic chemical fungicides as many salts are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and used in food processing industry. Thus, timing of application is critical and should be made 14 weeks before expected seed germination. For the most efficacious control of crabgrass and annual grasses, the preemergence herbicides need to be applied prior to the germination of the annual grass seeds. Propamocarb is selectively active against Oomycetes. With repeated ingestion, there is a possibility of cutaneous effects, alopecia and a risk of antithyroid effects, especially with maneb. Resistance to fludioxonil has been recently reported in F. sambucinum and F. coeruleum in Canada (Peters et al., 2008c) and in F. sambucinum and F. oxysporum in Michigan (Gachango et al., 2011b, 2012). As of 1998, 2,4-D was still the most widely used herbicide on turf (26% of total active ingredient applied), followed by glyphosate (11%), mecoprop (9%), pendimethalin (8%), MSMA (8%), triazines (6%), chlorothalonil (5%), benfin (3%), dicamba (2%), and other herbicides (19%) (Aspelin and Grube, 1999). Production of an unusual fatty acid was later reported in mycelial cells of Oomycetes. ), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.), caraway (Carum carvi L.), cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees), cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), dill (Anethum graveolens L.) and spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) essential oils showed less inhibitory activity (Gorris et al., 1994; Daferera et al., 2003). Thus, the decision to apply these materials must be carefully evaluated and applications monitored judiciously. Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride). Economoul, Botitsi, Antoniou, and Tsipi (2009) reported a multi-residue LC/MS/MS method for detection, confirmation and quantification of forty-six pesticides and transformation products in wines. Penetrant fungicides usually maintain control for much longer periods of time (1421 days or longer) compared with contact/protectant fungicides and can move into new tissues during growth of the plant. Finch, G.P.F. Table 3. A common programme is to use propamocarb mixtures early in the season with follow-up sprays of newer materials such as cymoxanil, cyazofamid, amisulbrom, ametoctradin, fenamidone and zoxamide. It is used on non-food sites such as ornamental lawns and turf, sod farms, plants, vines and woody plants. Growers can then respond by an application of fungicides; a wide range is available. Crabgrass germination occurs when the soil temperature is maintained at least at 65F (18C) for at least 1 week, and the monitoring of soil temperature is an efficient way to time the application. In order to improve the control of the disease and to maintain, when possible, the efficacy of TBZ through preventing the development of resistance, postharvest application of fungicide mixtures has also been tested (Table 3). Following application, the preemergence herbicides need to be watered in and the soil should not be disturbed during the target weed seed germination interval. Pest insects include surface feeders that damage foliage by chewing, piercing, or sucking (e.g., armyworms, chinch bugs, cutworms, and sod webworms) and subsurface feeders, which attack roots and result in desiccation and plants that are susceptible to drought (e.g., grubs). The presence of plant parasitic nematodes, by themselves, is not sufficient justification for application of nematicides. This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and propamocarb. The reproductive system is generally unaffected by exposure to EBDCs {common metabolite, ethylenethiourea (ETU)}. Such fungicides include PCNB, metalaxyl, triadimefon, ethazol, and propamocarb. Aqueous extracts of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) also provided inhibition of mycelial growth of F. sambucinum and reduced severity of potato dry rot (Mvuemba et al., 2009). Environmentally stressed turfgrass is prone to disease and pest attack, and turf pest management is a necessity. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain turfgrass in highly managed settings without fungicides. Gonzalez et al. Fenamiphos is a restricted-use material that is a systemic nematicide effective against ecto- and endoparasitic, free-living, cyst-forming, and root-knot nematodes and is recommended for application with and without soil incorporation. Wats) essential oils inhibiting F. graminearum on maize grain had an inhibitory effect on DON and ZEA production (Velluti et al., 2004). Several organic and non-organic salts were shown to inhibit mycelial growth and spore germination of F. sambucinum and F. solani var. This would indicate possible increase in resistant isolates although factors such as mode of application, concentration of the fungicide, timing of application, initial fungal inoculum prior to fungicide application and other conditions can explain the variable effects of the treatments. The following sections on disease, pest, and weed management are condensed largely from the Professional Guide for IPM in Turf (University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999), 1998 Plant Protection and Fertilizer Usage Report [Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998], and Racke (2000). Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. Granular materials and low-volatility liquid pesticides either are broadcast on the soil and then disked into the soil (Fig. Propamocarb, sold as Banol and Previcur, is effective against Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews, some rusts, and others. With the increase concerns of the impacts of chemical fungicides on human health and the environment as well as resistance development, different chemical compounds have been tested for the control of dry rot. The primary postemergence herbicides for grass weed control in turfgrass are the arsenates [e.g., methylarsonic acid (MSMA), disodium methylarsonate (DSMA), and amine methanearsonate (AMA)]. Rabbits and mice were resistant to oral doses, whereas cleft palate, tail and digital defects, and anal atresia were observed in hamster embryos (Teramoto et al., 1978). Multi-site mode of action prevents resistance problem. Taylor, Hird, Sykes, and Startin (2004) reported a LC/MS method for the determination of propamocarb residues in wine. Preemergence herbicides are effective control agents for several weeks to months on most annual grass weeds. Halofenozide and imidacloprid, which both possess novel chemistry and no cross-resistance to previously used insecticides, appear to be highly effective and amenable to resistance and integrated pest management schemes. Other more broad-spectrum penetrant fungicides are absorbed by plant tissues and move away from the point of entry, generally in an upwards direction. Recent studies have suggested that their mode of action is via their effect on lipid peroxidation and the inhibition of transport-associated phosphorylation of glucose. An increase in resistant isolates to fludioxonil may eventually result in its loss of efficacy. Most fungicides have a protectant and systemic action and are effective if sprayed regularly with the leaves being well covered. Ethoprop is a nonsystemic, nonfumigant nematicide, which is also effective against soil-dwelling insects. Among these fungicides, mancozeb, thiophanate-methyl, metiram, and fludioxonil are registered in Canada as seed treatments (CRAAQ, 2009). Table 47.1 lists the 11 most common turfgrass weed problems in terms of problem intensity. Mice and rabbits are less sensitive. Log Kow=<1.0. Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. Phosphoric acid is considered to be the active and systemic principle through disruption of phospolipid metabolism. Fumigation of tubers with garlic (Allium sativum L.) essential oil decreased the severity of dry rot caused by F. solani (Bng, 2007). To reduce the risk of spores spreading from the leaves to the tubers, the haulms should be destroyed when about 70% have been killed by blight; this is especially important if heavy rain is expected (Table6.2). Lane, in Lockhart & Wisemans Crop Husbandry Including Grassland (Ninth Edition), 2014. Cineole and menthol vapors reduced markedly the rot in tubers inoculated with two strains of F. sambucinum (Vaughn and Spencer, 1994). Certainly for most golf courses and sports facilities, the application of pesticides is the accepted and required chemical control paradigm. Tin compounds used to be available for killing spores which fell on the soil before they reached the tubers, but are now no longer approved. Commercial product can be a soluble concentrate that may be mixed with water and used as a spray. Highly soluble in water. Pawan K. Gupta, in Veterinary Toxicology (Third Edition), 2018. Propamocarb hydrochloride is used for the plant disease called damping-off and has fungicidal activity against Pythium spp. Other diseases of potatoes are mainly seed-borne and can be controlled by treating seed with fungicides, e.g. Recoveries were in the range from 71 to 118%. Most fungicides have a protectant and systemic action and are effective if sprayed regularly with the leaves being well covered. Highly volatile chemicals are applied to the soil with tractors dragging devices equipped with chisels (Figs. Registered for use in the U.S. tomato 2.0ppm; tomato, paste 5.0ppm; tomato, puree 1.0ppm. Various synthetic chemical fungicides such as carbendazim, fenpiclonil, imazalil, nuarimol, prochloraz, and sisthane, were reported effective in controlling dry rot (Table 3). Broadleaf weeds are controlled predominantly using postemergence herbicides (e.g., Trimec mixtures of 2,4-D, dicamba, mecoprop, dicamba itself, and Confront mixtures of triclopyr plus clopyralid). et Link. The malformations have been prevented by coadministration of thyroxine (Emmerling, 1978). These herbicides and some additional compounds used for weed control on turfgrass, along with their structures and effective weed targets, are given in Table 47.4. Chitosan and -aminobutyric acid applications were also reported to reduce the lesion diameter of potato tuber inoculated with F. sulphureum and F. solani. The mass spectrometry analyses were carried out by using electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in the positive mode both for single quadrupole and for QIT mass analysers, operating in selected ion monitoring (SIM) and in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes, respectively. Table 47.3. 9-31A and 9-31D) that release the chemical 612 inches deep into the soil and the treated area is covered immediately with plastic (Figs. When heated to decomposition or on contact with acids or acid fumes, it may produce highly toxic chloride fumes; deadly phosgene gas may be formed. However, some discrepancies in reported efficacy have arisen such as imazalil reported both effective (Hide and Cayley, 1980, 1985) and ineffective (Carnegie et al., 1998) as a postharvest treatment. The fungicide inhibits nucleic acid and protein synthesis. On histopathology, hepatic, renal and pulmonary congestion is common. In all reports of resistance to TBZ, F. sambucinum had the greater proportion of resistant-strains, from 42 to 100% of tested strains (Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012). Certain compounds inhibit ovulation and egg laying (thiram and ziram). Unlikely to bioaccumulate in marine organisms. Signal transduction, exchange of ions and substances through membranes, cell cycle and biogenesis of cell structures and other functions of organisms are controlled in this way. (2002) demonstrated the biocidal activity of small peptides against TBZ-resistant F. sambucinum and their synergism with TBZ against TBZ-resistant and sensitive strains. Another GRAS compound, sodium silicate, showed a fungitoxic activity against F. sulphureum in vitro and contributed to limit dry rot lesions in vivo (Li et al., 2009a). Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry. Carcinogenicity[83]: EPA, Not likely to be carcinogenic to humans. Structures of each of these insecticides and the pests they control are given in Table 47.3. The fungicide controls diseases at concentrations which have little or no effect on growth of the pathogens on artifical media. Generally, fungicides are separated into two functional classes, the contact/protectants and the penetrants, including the systemic types. Common development and reproductive abnormalities include reduction in copulation index (female rats) and BW, retardation in ossification (rat), and increased postimplantation loss (rabbit) (JMPR, 2005). Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. This is the worst fungal disease which attacks the potato crop. Application of fludioxonil as seed tuber treatment was shown to reduce the inoculum potential of soil surrounding the progeny tubers by affecting the spread of the pathogen from infected seed tubers (Bains et al., 1999, 2001). Thiram induced cleft palate in one study and developmental toxicity in another study. It is also important to think about preventative measures to stop the spread of blight. Among GRAS compounds, plant essential oils have shown in vitro activity against some Fusarium spp. Dicarboximides are used in ornamental plant cultivation, in bulb flowers and other flower crops for disinfection against Botrytis spp. Potato dumps and volunteers in neighbouring fields are important sources. They represent a group of highly active and selective fungicides. These are recorded by the Meteorological Office, and information can be obtained by farmers by telephone or through the Internet. Limits of detection were in the range from 0.0003 to 0.003mg/L and limits of quantification ranged from 0.001 to 0.01mg/L. Different studies conducted on 2-imidazolidinethione, a plant metabolite of fungicide maneb, and other related fungicides such as mancozeb, showed different malformations in different species of experimental animals. ), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) and caraway essential oils were highly toxic against F. oxysporum and controlled very well the decay when applied on potato tubers as protective and therapeutic agents (Mahmoud et al., 2008). Table 47.1 lists the 15 most common insect pests on turf in terms of problem intensity in the United States (GCSAA, 1998). If applied, however, nematicides should not be used where contamination of potable or groundwater may occur. Highly systemic for quick absorption and translocation. The use of irrigation in the summer usually triggers a Blight Period and a spray programme should be started soon after. The disease spreads rapidly in warm, moist conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. P.K. In particular, it has been shown that, in combination with tandem mass spectrometry (ion trap or triple quadrupole), LC is a very sensitive technique to reveal pesticide residues in juice and wine. Molecular weight=224.73; Specific gravity (H2O:1)=1.16 @ 20C; Boiling point=(decomposes) 100C (liquid); Freezing/Melting point=64C. It is necessary to reapply these types of fungicides every 514 days due to their environmental breakdown on the plant surface, removal due to wash-off (rain, dews, etc. Mole crickets burrow through turf and can cause substantial disruption to the thatch/soil interface, which results in unsightly turfgrass surfaces. The principal target organ upon repeated exposure to EBDCs is the thyroid. Other more broad-spectrum penetrant fungicides are absorbed by plant tissues and move away from the point of entry, generally in an upwards direction. ), and removal by mowing. Table 47.4. The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, propamocarb, etc.) LC was performed with a mobile-phase gradient and detection was by electrospray mass spectrometry in a positive ionization mode. Proportion of TBZ-resistant isolates varied greatly by species and origin sites. coeruleum in vitro (Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012).
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